Ancient India

1-  The origin of Shavism can be traced back to pre-vedic  times. 2-  By the early centuries of the Christian era it was popular sect all over India. 3-  Shiva was the principal deity of this sect. 4-  Shiva was worshipped in the form of Linga. 5-  Kushan king Weem Wema Kadphises was an ardent devote of Shiva. 6-  Prakrit test Gathasaptasati has references to Shiva worship. 7-  Tamil Sangam work refers to Shiva as the greatest of all gods (mamudu mudalvan). 8-  Shiva's consort Parvati was adored as Sakti. 9-  In Satavahana kingdom Parvati was worshipped as Gauri. 10-  Skanda was regarded as the son of Shiva. 11-  In Tamil state Skanda was worshipped in the Murugan form. 12-   Ganesa was the younger brother of skanda . 13-  Ganesa was also known as Vinayak. 14-  The most popular Shiva Sect was Pasupata sect. 15-  The Kapalika and Kalamukha sect developed much later. VARIOUS SECTS OF SHAIVISM A) Pasupatas / Nakulisapasupatas 1-  It was fou

 There are nine (9) types of hindu marriage(Vivaha) _ 1-  Brahma Vivaha  -   Giving the girl to a man with dowry. 2-  Daiva Vivaha -  Giving the girls to the priest himself in lieu of his fees. 3-  Arsha Vivaha -   Giving the girl to a man after accepting a brideprice. 4-  Prajapatya Vivaha -   Giving vthe girl to a man without demanding a bridgeprice. 5-  Gandharva Vivaha -  Love marriage. 6-  Asura Vivaha -  Marriage with a purchased girl. 7-  Rakshasa Vivaha -   Marriage with the daughter of a defeated king or with a kidnapped girl. 8-  Paishacha Vivaha -   Marriage to a girl after seducing or raping her. 9-  Anuloma Vivaha -  Marriage between a bridegroom from an upper caste and a bridge from a lower caste.

1-  Atharva Veda (book of magical formulae), the fourth and the last one, contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. For a very long time it was not included in the category of the Vedas. 2-  A collection of 711 hymns, it is divided into 20 khandas. 3-  It is the latest Veda. 4- Atharva Veda is a book of magical formula medicinal treatises etc. 5-  It contain charms and spell to ward off evil and disease. 6-  Its content throws light on the practices of non - Aryans. 7-  In Atharvaveda, Sabha and Samiti  are described as uterine sisters - The two daughters of  Prajapati. 8-  This veda is also known as Brahma Veda.

1-  Sama veda (books of chants) had 1549 hymns . All hymns (excluding 75) were taken from the Rig Veda. The hymns of the Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri. This Veda is important for Indian music. 2-  Sama Veda derives its roots from Saman, which means a melodies. 3-  A collection of melodies. 4-  It contains the Dhrupada Raga. 5-  The singer of Sama Veda is called Udgata.

1-  The Yajur Veda (book of sacrificial prayers) is a ritual Veda. Its hymns were recited by Adhvaryus. It is divided into two parts Krishna Yajur Veda and Shukla Yajur Veda. In contrast to the first two which are in verse entirely, this one is in both verse and prose. 2-  A ritualistic Veda. 3-  The singer of the Yajur Veda is called Ardhavayu. 4-  Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of scrifices and contains rituals and well as hymns.

1-  Rig Veda ( Collection of lyrics ) is the oldest text in the world, and therefore is also known as ' the first testament of mankind '. The Rig Veda contain 1028 hymns, divided into 10 mandalas. Six (6) ( from 2nd to 7th mandalas ) are called Gotra / Vamsha Mandalas ( Kulu Granth ). The 1st and 10th mandala are said to have been added later. The 10th mandala contains the famous Purushasukta which explain the 4 Varnas - Brahmana, Kshastriya, Vaishya and Shudra. The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri. 2-  It is divided into 10 books or Mandalas. Books second (2) to seventh (7) are considered the oldest. Book first (1), eighth(8) and tenth(10) seem to be later additions. 3-  A collection of 1028 hymns of a number of priestly families. 4-  Written between 1700 - 1500 B.C. when Aryans were still in Punjab. 5-  Books second(2nd) to seventh (7th) are earliest and are also called as family books. They are attributed to Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vasudeava, Atr

1-  The word of Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word ' Vidi ' meaning to know or knoweledge par excelence. 2-  Vedic texts are divided between Shruti (based on hearing), which is distinct from Smriti (based on memory). 3-   Four Vedas and their Samhitas   , the Brahmanas, the Upanishads form a class of literature known as Shruti. 4-  The Brahmans explain the hymns of the Vedas. They are written in prose and ritualistic in nature. Brahma mean ' sacrifice' .  The various sacrifices and rituals have been elaborately discussed in the Brahamanas. Every Veda has several Brahamanas attached to it - a)  Rig Veda - Aitareya and kaushitikij Sankhyan. b)  Sam Veda - Panchvisha (Tandya Maha Brahamana), Shadvinsh, Chliandogya and Jaiminaya. c)  Yajur Veda - Shatapatha (the oldest adn the largest Brahamana) and Taittariya. d)  Atharva Veda - Gopatha. 5-  The word  Aranya means " the forest ". The ' forest texts ' were called

THE LATER VEDIC  PERIOD (1000 - 600 B.C.) 1-  The period assigned to later Vedic phase is 1000 B.c. to 600 B.C. 2- These communites used a particular kind of pottery called the Painted Grey Ware (PGW). 3-  More than sites have been found in the upper Ganga basin. Some imprtant PGW sites are Atranji khera, Ahichhatra, Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Bhagwanpura  and Jakhera. 4-  Iron objects are common to most PGW sites. This metal was introduced around 1000 - 800 B.C.  It is mentioned as Ayas. 5-  Society was clearly divided in four Varnas namely - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudras. 6-  The upper classes were known as Dvij (twice born). 5-  Education begin with investiture ceremony (upanayana). 6-  Gotra first appeared in Atharvaveda with the meaning of clan. 7-  There was practice of class exogamy. 8-  There was reference to sati but not in common fashion. 9-  Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became su

THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 - 1000 B.C)                            1-  It is also known as  Rig Vedic Age. 2-  Rig Vedic Age gives us knowledege about the Aryans they were come India from central Asia(Stepped region). 3- The earliest Aryans lived in the land of ' Sapta Sindhava ' i.e., land of seven rivers. 4-  The early vedic society was pastoral. 5-  Cattle was the cheif measure of wealth and wealthy man was called 'Gomat'. 6-  The term Aghanya or not to be killed has been used for cows. 7-  The Raja or chief is called 'Gopati' . 8-  In the Rigveda Godhuli is used as a term for a measure of time. 9-  Apart from Yava or Barley no other grain is mentioned. 10-  Indra was the greatest god of Aryans. Agni occupied the second position. 11-  Varuna occupied the third postion and he personfied water. 12- The Battle of Ten Kings ended with the victory of the Bharatas led by Sudas. 13-  Gayatri Mantra

1-  According to radio carbon dating Harappan civilization developed between 2500 B.C to 1750 B.C. 2- Indus civilization is also called as Harappan civilization developed be first excavated site is Harappa. 3-  It belongs to the Bronze Age. 4- It extended from Manda(Jammu) in North to Daimabad in South. 5-  Major settlements are in the Ghaggar-Hakra belt. 6-  Copper, bronze, silver,gold were known but not iron. 7-  Seals were made up of steatite. 8-  Majority of the seals have an animal engraved on it with a short inscription. The most frequently found animal is unicorn bull. 9-  Camel bones have been discovered at kalibangan. 10-  They worshipped, Proto-Shiva, Mother-Goddess, Bull, and Pipal tree. 11-  Important sites are Harappa, Mohenjodero, Lothal, Kalibangan, Baanwali, Dholavira. 12- At   Kalibangan   and  Lothal fire altars have been discovered. 13-  Furrowed field has been discovered at Kalibangan. 14- Harappan Civilizat

                                                              1-  The term ' Neolithic' was coined by Sir John   Lubbock in his book ''Pre Historic Times' . 2-  Neolithic men culivated land and grew fruits and corn like ragi and horse gram. They                domesticated cattle, sheep and goat. 3-  Important sites are Gufkaral, Burzahom,  Chirand, Mehargarh, Piklihal.  4-  Chopani Mando provides the earilest  evidence of the use of pottery in the  world.

  1-  The Mesolithic Age began 8,ooo B.C.   2- It was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic age.   3-  Blade, Mesolithic tools are microliths.   4-  Blade, Core, Point, Triangle, Lunate  and  Trapeze are the main types of  Mesolithic tools.   5-  Important sites of Mesolithic Age are  Bagor, langhraj, Sarai Nahar and  Birbhanpur.                               6-  Sites like Bhimbetka, Adamgarh and  Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic Art.       

                          PALEOLITHIC AGE                        (250,000-10,000 B.C)                                               The pre-historic phase can be roughly diveded into 3 parts-                                     1- Paleolithic     2- Mesolithic    3- Neolithic                                                                                         PALEOLITHIC  AGE   1-   Paleolithic Culture develpoed in the Pleistocene period.       2-  Pleistocene was the period when ice covered the earth surface.    3-  The main tools used during this period are handaxes, cleavers,  Choppers, flakes, burins,scrapers . 4-  Their tools were made up of hard rock called ' quartzite '. 5-  The paleolithic sites are spread in pratically all parts of India except the alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga.                                 6-  The people of this age lived on hunting and gathring wild   fruits and vegetables .                

1- Literary Source: Vedic,Sanskriti,Pali,Prakrit and other literature and foreign accounts.    2- Archeological: Epigraphic,nimismatic and architectural remains, archaelogical explorations and excavations                                            1- study of development of scripts: Paleography     2- study of inscriptions:  Epigraphy   3- study of coins:  Numismatics   4- study of monuments,material   remains:    Archeology                                                                           LITERARY  SOURCES  Indian Tradition Of History Writing   1- Many foreign scholars opined that Indians had no sense of history writing and whatever was written in the name of history is nothing more than story without any sense. 2- But this appears to be a very harsh judgement.Because the knowledge of history was a very high place in anicent India. It was accorded sanctity equal to a Veda.                           3- Atharvaveda,Brahmans and Upanishads inc